Religiously the Chinese are very eclectic. In proportion to the total population the number of bona fide Buddhists, Taoists, Christians or Confucianists has been and is comparatively small. The average Chinese has long been and still is a Buddhist, a Confucianist and a Taoist with no sense of incongruity or inconsistency.
Associated with this eclecticism is a certain tolerance. The existence of a greater amount of religious toleration in China may have been because the practically minded Chinese have been eager to take advantage of every possible benefit from each of the religions which have come to their attention. It may have been because of the desire to build a mankind-embracing culture, and of the concomitant talent for absorbing other cultures.
Still another characteristic of Chinese religious life has been its optimism. There is little of the despair of human existence, of the pessimism about the worth of human-life and of the desire to be rid of personality which one finds in much of Indian thought.
Closely related with the optimistic attitude toward the universe is the strong ethical note in much of Chinese religion. Confucianism emphasizes man's duty to man and praises such virtues as loyalty, filial piety, sincerity, kindness and not doing to another what one does not like to have done to oneself. Buddhism has strongly reinforced this ethical note and has taught that suffering is a certain consequence of unrighteousness. Taoism has also contributed toward making Chinese religion moral.
A further characteristic of the religious attitude of the Chinese has been this-worldliness. The welfare of the living has been stressed in the teachings of Confucius and his disciples.
Under the Republic of China there is no established religion, but under the Ch'ing dynasty and for many centuries before that period the Chinese govern men t used to recognize three religions: the Ju Chiao, the Shih Chiao and the Tao Chiao. The last named is Taoism. The term Shih Chiao is one applied to Buddhism. The words Ju Chiao mean the religion of the learned. Not infrequently it is called Kung Chiao or "Confucian religion." Mohammedanism and Christianity are of a later adoption. Each of the abovementioned religions will be treated in some detail.
I. CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism is largely a Western name, al though we speak of Kung Chiao— "Confucian teaching," or Ju Chiao— "teaching of the learned." Indeed, the question is sometimes debated whether Confucianism is a religion at all. To some it is but a system of ethics. Perhaps the answer depends in part upon a definition. If one calls religion "any system of faith and worship," then Confucianism may be said to contain religious elements, even though it includes other features.
To know what Confucianism is, it is essential to study its sacred books. These are commonly referred to as the "Four Books" and the "Five Classics." The "Four Books" are: (1) the "Analects," that is to say the sayings of Confucius as collected by his disciples; (2) the "Great Learning," a treatise written probably by Tseng-tse, a disciple of Confucius; (3) the "Doctrine of the Mean" by Tse-ssu, a grandson of the sage; and (4) the "Works of Mencius."
The "Five Classics" are: (1) the Yi Ching, or "Book of Changes," used in divination; (2) the Shu Ching, or "Book of History"; (3) the Shih Ching, or the "Collection of Poetry"; (4) the Li Chi, or "Book of Rites"; and (5) the Ch'un Ch'iu, or "Annals."
Another arrangement makes 13 in all instead of 9. This is done by including two other collections of "Annals" and two other collections of "Rites," also an ancient dictionary and the work known as the "Classic' of Filial Piety." The "Doctrine of the Mean" and the "Great Learning" in that case are not counted, as they are included in the "Book of Rites."
Among the noteworthy sayings which fell from Confucius' lips, the following may be quoted as examples:
Do not unto others what you do not like done unto yourself.
Sorrow not that men do not know you but sorrow that you do not know men.
If you have faults, do not fear to abandon them.
To see the right and not do it, that is cowardice.
Overpassing is like coming short of the mark.
As a religion, Confucianism has no order of priesthood, that is to say, there is no body of officials set apart from secular life, devoted solely to the performance of religious functions. The emperor, in the days of the empire, was the head of the state, and officiated as the high priest of his people at the most important sacrifices. Every civil and military officer of the government had duties to perform in connection with the state worship. In the provinces the principal civil official of the district presided over the services at the local altars and temples. His subordinates assisted, and at the worship of Confucius all the scholars of the district, who had received degrees, were expected to participate. There was, however, a Board of Rites at Peking (Peiping), charged with general oversight of religion and education, and there were also a Court of Sacrificial Worship and a Board of Music which were responsible for the details of the worship. The Imperial College of Astronomy, too, had important functions to discharge in connection with the religious services.
On May 31, 1934, the Standing Committee of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang designated the birthday of Confucius as a national holiday, and ordained that senior officials of the government should participate in the sacrificial ceremonies at Küfow.
The influence of Confucianism has been largely beneficial. It has promoted peace and good order in society and encouraged moral living in the individual. It has allowed the widest latitude in philosophical speculation. It places no obstacle in the way of research nor prevents the acceptance of the conclusions of modern science.
II. TAOISM
Taoism as a Philosophy-Taoism is both a philosophy and a religion. As a philosophy it is traced to Lao-tse, who was born in 604 B.C near the modern city of Kweiteh, Honan. He was a profound thinker, a political philosopher of keen insight, and an ethical teacher of very high order. He did not pose as a saint, had no thought of founding a religion, and could have had no sympathy with the modern conglomeration of shamanism, sorcery, astrology, necromancy, demonolatry and magic which passes for a religion. It was not until 700 years after his death that he was canonized and that a temple was built for his worship.
In the Tao Te Ching, a classic commonly attributed to his authorship, the Taoist philosophy finds its roots. The book treats of two subjects, tao and te. Tao is the fundamental principle of the philosophy which it teaches and te is the practical exemplification of that principle in conduct. Tao means the "way." Te is commonly translated as "virtue." When one walks in the "way" the result is right conduct, or virtue.
Lao-tse began his work with a brief discussion of the one great problem of philosophy: to discover the unity underlying all diversity, the changelessness that lies behind all change, the infinite surrounding the finite, the eternal principle of the universe. This he called Tao. In the first chapter of the book he said:
The eternal principle which lies behind the phenomenal world is undefinable. Undefined, it lies at the beginning of the universe. To define it is to limit it. As the source of the whole world it is defined. It limits itself. Free from all attributes it is seen as the Absolute. Possessed of attributes it is seen as limited. These two, the Absolute and the Limited, have a common origin. Their common origin we call the abyss. It is indeed the abyss of abysses and the doorway to all mystery.
In his political theories Lao-tse seemed to be a philosophical anarchist. This would hardly be a fair judgment, however, for while he sought to reduce government to the minimum he did not deny that government was needed. "The holy man's method of government," he said, "is to empty the people's hearts and fill their stomachs; to weaken their desires and strengthen their bones." For him the welfare of the people was the true object of government. He disliked, however, to see the people struggling for wealth and official position and taking in display. "The lust of the flesh, the lust of the eye and the pride of life" were things he condemned. "Riches, honor and pride," he said, "leave a heritage of ill fortune." "Horse racing and hunting disorder the mind and the scramble for wealth mars the character of man." He did not think, however, that matters were to be improved by legislation, for he said: "The more warnings and prohibitions there are in the world, the poorer the people become." "The more laws and commands there are, the greater the number of thieves and robbers." Therefore, the holy man says: "I do nothing and men themselves reform; I suppress desire and men themselves become simple in their tastes."
"Do nothing," was his motto—"Do nothing, and all will be done." He loved paradox. "The Tao is ever inactive, yet there is nothing which it does not accomplish." "Whosoever endeavors, fails; he who seizes, loses. The holy man does nothing, so fails in nothing. He seizes nothing and therefore, loses nothing. He desires to be free from desire, and not to prize things that are hard to get." Again he said: "There is no sin greater than desire; there is no misfortune greater than not to know when one has enough. There is no fault greater than greed of gain." This policy of suppressing desire and allowing things to take their course, he believed to be the way of nature—the way of the Tao. He taught that gentleness would accomplish more than force. Real goodness he likened to water, which seeks the lowly place and benefits all sorts of creatures. "There is nothing more yielding than water, but nothing can equal it in attacking the hard." "Weakness conquers strength; the soft overcomes the hard."
Lao-tse was an altruist, for he said: "The holy man keeps himself in the background, and therefore, he comes to the front. He puts self aside, and therefore, his own interests are preserved." He rises to a greater height than Confucius. The latter opposed the teaching that one should return good for evil. "What, then, will you return for good?" he asked. Lao-tse, on the other hand, said: "I am good to the good; I am also good to the bad, for virtue is goodness. With the faithful I am faithful; with the unfaithful I am also faithful; for virtue is faithfulness." "Requite enmity with kindness." He hated war. "Even the best weapons," he said, "are unlucky instruments. They are not the instruments of the perfect man. Only when unavoidable does he use them."
By his philosophy he sought to make men masters of themselves. Thus he taught as follows:
"Whosoever knows men is knowing, but he who knows himself has understanding. He who subdues others is strong, but he who conquers self is mighty. He who knows sufficiency is rich." But the method by which one attains this self-control is not to be a method imposed upon one from without by laws and commands. It is the self-determined choice of the soul, which, knowing Tao to be the source of all things and the only true way of life, seeks to live in harmony with that living word and to walk in that high way.
Beside the Tao Te Ching, a widely revered work, of which the authorship is unknown and copies have been gratuitously distributed, is the Kan Ying Pien, "Book of Rewards and Punishments." In this piece of literature a high standard of morality is taught which reinforces much of that inculcated by Confucianism and Buddhism. The following are some of its beautiful passages:
There are no gateways to calamity or blessing save those which men open for themselves. The recompense of good and evil follow as naturally as the shadow follows the substance.
Enter the right path; avoid the wrong path.
Do not walk in the way of evil.
Be compassionate towards all creatures.
First correct yourself, and then convert others.
Have pity upon the orphaned; assist the widow; respect the aged; be kind to children.
Be grieved by the misfortunes of others and rejoice in their good luck.
Do not publish the faults of others nor praise your own goodness.
Bear insult without hatred; accept kindness as unexpected; bestow charity without seeking reward; give to men without regret.
The greatest of Lao-tse's disciples was Chuang-tse, the great idealist, who lived in the fourth century B.C. He was a contemporary of Mencius but the two men do not appear to have met.
After the passing of Chuang-tse, the Taoist philosophy began to degenerate. Men of smaller mind than Chuang-tse could not live in the rarefied atmosphere in which he delighted. They came down to lower levels. Forgetting the lofty ethics of Lao-tse, some of them fastened upon what he had written about caring for the animal soul and regulating the ch'i or "vital vapor," and sought by a regimen of mental and physical calisthenics to rejuvenate themselves. By holding the breath (which is called ch'i), by preserving the bodily secretions, and by suppression of desire, by retirement from the world, avoidance of all violent emotions, and the cultivation of passivity, they thought to attain to immortality.
Others gave to the Tao and its operations a physical instead of a metaphysical interpretation. They found in it the final substance out of which all things are made. Chuang-tse's idealism, which reconciled all contradictions in a higher unity, which identified all diversities in the all-pervading one, was transformed into the grossest sort of materialism, in accordance with which all substances were considered as modifications of the one original matter. They reasoned that as a base of all the various metals there must exist a common substance, from which any or all of them can by manipulation be produced. Thus, one might take a quantity of lead and, by divesting it of certain qualities, reach the primal substance, which, by the addition of other qualities could be converted into gold. So alchemy was born.
Taoism as a Religion. —As early as the middle of the second century A.D. Taoism had ceased to be a philosophy only and had become a religion as well. In 166 A.D. a temple was erected to Lao-tse. The old philosopher became a god. Chang Liang, who retired from office when the founder of the Han dynasty died (194 B.C.), was declared to have been one of the patriarchs of the Taoist sect, and his descendant in the eighth generation (34 A.D.), Chang Tao-ling, who was declared to have lived to be 123 years of age, was proclaimed as the first Taoist pope. From that day to this the descendants of this Chang Tao-ling have held the headship of the sect. In 423 A.D. the emperor conferred upon the pope of that day the title of Tien Shih or "Heavenly Preceptor," a title still used by his successors. In 748 A.D. the papal authority was limited to members of the family of Chang Tao-ling, and in 1016 the pope was granted a large domain in the province of Kiangsi. The White Deer Grotto on the Dragon-Tiger Mountain was the papal seat into modem times. This, in fact, was the home of Chang Tao-ling, and it was here, according to tradition, that he discovered the elixir of immortality. After reaching the age of 123 years, it is said, he ascended to Heaven, bequeathing the secret to his son.
At present, the only individuals who can in the strict sense be termed Taoists are the professionals, or tao shih. Some of them are anchorites who through meditation and ascetic practices seek immortality. Others are celibates living in monastic communities. However, the majority of tao shih marry and do not live in communities but in their own homes and support their families on fees received for saying services for the dead.
III. BUDDHISM
China has been an important center of Buddhism. She possesses the greatest number of Buddhist texts and has had a glorious history of Buddhist development. Indeed, Buddhism has permeated almost every phase of Chinese civilization. In 1937 there were in China more than 267,000 Buddhist temples and 738,000 Bhikkus (monks) and Bhikkunis (nuns), while the number of Upasakas and Upasikas (laymen and laywomen who have taken five vows) was five times more. The total number of Buddhists of all descriptions remains to be ascertained.
The saying of the Lord Buddha that all things different localities to promote the interests both of the nation and of the religion. Branches of the association were formed in every Chinese community wherein the association was able to establish a primary school for Mohammedan children. It also devoted its best efforts towards the establishment of normal schools and the publication of magazines and the general improvement of the condition of Mohammedans.
In more recent years the Chinese Mohammedan Educational Association was formed. Among the activities of the new institution were the translation of the Koran into Chinese, the establishment of Mohammedan normal schools, the dispatch of students to Cairo for advanced study, the sending of a petition to the ruler of Egypt to send learned Mussulmans to China to teach Arabic language and other branches of learning, the importation of Koran and other Mohammedan literature from India, Egypt, Mecca, and Turkey to China and the conduct of meetings, open to the general public, at regular intervals and at regular places to preach the precepts of Islamism. A renaissance of Mohammedanism in China may be truly said to have been instituted.
Prominent Mohammedans. —As the customs of the Mohammedans differ widely from those of the Chinese, there is a tendency on the part of the followers of Islam to keep to themselves, and they formed a foreign element not readily assimilable into the otherwise homogeneous mass of the Chinese people. However, from time immemorial they always enjoyed the same privileges as their countrymen and there was never any discrimination against them. Indeed many of them have risen to high positions in Chinese officialdom both before and after the formation of the Republic.
Translation of the Koran into Chinese. —In the early days of Mohammedanism in China, no attempt was made to translate the Koran into the Chinese language and the teaching of the tenets of the Islam was undertaken by those who were thoroughly conversant with the Arabic language. It was in the reign of the Emperor Tung Chih that a translation of this holy book into Chinese was made by Mr. Ma Kung-fu. This translation comprised 20 volumes but unfortunately 15 of these were lost and only five were left to posterity. These five precious volumes were not published until 1927, when their owner, Chao Chen-hou, brought them to Shanghai on his pilgrimage to Mecca and showed them to the Mohammedan Educational Association and was persuaded by the association to have them published. During recent years several efforts have been made to publish the Koran in the Chinese language.
V. CATHOLICISM
Just when the Catholic religion was first introduced into the Chinese Empire is still a matter of conjecture. Immemorial tradition has it that St. Thomas, the apostle, after establishing the gospel of Christ in India, pushed farther on to the shores of Sinim, but there exist no written documents to support this ancient tradition. During the fifth year of the reign of T'ien Chi (1625 A.D.), there was discovered at Sianfu, in the province of Shensi, a stone slab on which was chiseled the following notation:
During the T'ang dynasty, in the ninth year of the reign of Cheng Kuan, a man named Alopen came with some of his friends to preach the religion.
Under the T'ang, therefore, the Catholic religion was propagated in China, according to the testimony of this ancient stele. The evangelists of that day, however, did not bring with them the Catholic doctrine in its pristine purity. They belonged to the Nestorian sect, which persisted in denying that Mary was the Mother of God and in calling her "Christokos," but not "Theotokos."
Later on, during the Yuan dynasty, Franciscan missionaries were sent out from Rome to the far distant Middle Kingdom, and succeeded in establishing Christian communities in various parts of the vast empire. Disaster overtook this splendid enterprise and blotted out almost all trace of the fruitful Christianizing efforts of these intrepid evangelists. It remained for the Jesuits to effect a permanent footing for the Catholic faith in China. By their masterly attainments and their apostolic daring, they won prestige and patronage at the Imperial Court for the ancient faith, during the declining years of the Ming and the first decades of the Manchu conquerors. From that time on, the history of the Catholic religion in China has been one of constant progress and expansion.
Nomination of an Apostolic Delegate. —The Roman Catholic Church is hierarchical in character. Supreme magisterial power is vested in the pope; while assisting him in the spiritual government of the church and in the care of the faithful scattered in the world are always changing may be applied to the Buddhist religion in China. Two aspects of modern movements in Chinese Buddhism may be noted: one aspect is the change in administrative conditions and the other is the change that is taking place in the current of thought among Buddhists. The contemporary Buddhist scholars are moving in two directions-to Tibet and to Ceylon. The high philosophy of the Tibetan School and its systematic courses of training, and the strict discipline of the Ceylonese or Southern School are considered by Chinese scholars to be useful, if not essential, to Chinese Buddhism. Many Buddhists went to the two places with the object of bringing back further teachings.
IV. MOHAMMEDANISM
Origin. —Mohammedanism, like all the other great religions, had its inception in Asia. It was founded by Mohammed in Arabia and gradually spread abroad until today it is a worldwide religion and is the prevailing religion in Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa. The real name of this religion is Islam, the name assigned to it by its founder. In China it is commonly known as the religion of the Huis. This nomenclature is derived from the fact that it is the religion of nearly 90 per cent of the Hui Ho people (a tribe of Uigurs), who have maintained contact with the Chinese people ever since the T'ang dynasty.
Advent into China. —Mohammedanism made its advent in China in 651 A.D. when the governments of the Islam nations began to pay their tributes to Emperor Kao Tsung of the T'ang dynasty following the visit of Wahb-Abi-Kabha, an uncle of Mohammed. From that time the religion gradually gained a following in China simultaneously with the growth of commerce. With the passing of the years more and more Mohammedans immigrated to China. By the year 690 several tens of thousands of Mussulmans were residing in China. The advent of Islam into China was made via the water route from the Arabian Sea across the Indian Ocean and through the Strait of Malacca to the coastal provinces of Kwangtung, Fukien, and Chekiang. The magnificent mosques in these three provinces are the best evidence of the greatness of Islam in these early days. The Huai Sheng Mosque in Canton was the first Mohammedan house of worship built in China. Later on the Moslems came to China by the overland route through Persia and Afghanistan into Sinkiang and from there gradually made their way eastward and settled in the north western provinces of China, particularly in Shensi and Kansu. In 755 A.D. the Caliph Abu Grafar sent an expedition of 4,000 Arabian soldiers to China at the request of the Chinese government to assist in the quelling of a rebellion and they rendered meritorious service in that connection. Most of these soldiers remained in China, and some of the Mohammedans of today are their direct descendants.
Commercial Activities. —The Arabians are great traders and navigators and are encouraged by their government to engage in these commercial and marine pursuits. During their heyday they practically controlled the carrying trade and commerce between Europe, Asia and Africa, and went as far south as the South Sea Islands of Sumatra and Borneo. Their activities were confined to commerce and the propagation of the tenets of Mohammed and they were free from any political or territorial ambitions. From the South Seas these mariners and traders came to China, where they were well received. Many of these Arabians became port officials and collectors of Customs at different ports of China and were instrumental in the promotion of trade between China and the foreign states. The majority of the residents in Amoy and Chuanchow having the surname of Pu are said to be the direct descendants of these Moslem officials.
Islam under the Manchu Rule. —Although the number of Mohammedans did not diminish under the Manchu rule, their activities were greatly curtailed with the succession of the Manchus to the Chinese throne. The oppressive policies of the new rulers were not conducive to the development of Islamism. It was only during the last years of the liberal Emperor Kuang Hsü that a Mohammedan delegate, Wang Hou-yang, made a trip to Turkey and obtained an audience with the Sultan who, as the Caliph, was the supreme head of the Islam Church. As a result of this visit several high-ranking Moslems were sent to China to preach the principles of Mohammed, to improve the education system among the Mohammedans and to establish primary schools for the Mussulman children.
Islam under the Republic. —After the establishment of the Republic, the Chinese Mohammedan Mutual Progress Association was formed for the purpose of uniting all the Mohammedans in the throughout the world are the cardinals, archbishops, bishops and priests.
Naturally, since the first standard-bearers of Christ came from the West, the first bishops to govern the newly founded Christian communities were drawn from among their number. In the Ch'ing dynasty, however, in the 24th year of the Emperor K'ang Hsi's reign, a Chinese priest, Lo Wen-tsao, a native of Fooanhsien, Fukien province, received episcopal consecration—the first Chinese to be elevated to the episcopacy. It must be noted, however, that from the beginning the European missionaries worked zealously toward the formation of an indigenous clergy, and their efforts in this line were always heartily seconded by Rome.
With the steady increase in the number and attainments of native priests, the sovereign pontiffs cherished the idea of appointing Chinese bishops to assume governing positions in the mission church; and Pope Benedict XV, in a masterly encyclical, "Maximum Illud," issued on November 30, 1919, insisted on the furtherance of this typically Catholic means of Christian evangelization. Death overtook the great pontiff (January 22, 1922) before the realization of his desire could be effected. On his accession to the papal throne, the new pope, Pius XI, immediately took steps to carry out his predecessor's wish; and in August, 1922, His Grace, Celse Costantini, Archbishop of Theodosia, was named the first apostolic delegate to China. He arrived in Hongkong on November 8 of the same year.
The Council of China. —In the early months of 1924, His Holiness, Pope Pius XI, entrusted to His Grace, the Apostolic Delegate, the important task of assembling together, in the city of Shanghai, all the prelates of the church then resident in China in order to legislate on matters pertaining to the prosperity and welfare of the mission. This general assembly was called the Plenary Council of China. Of the 115 church leaders taking part in the proceedings of this august body, 49 were bishops. The council, imposing in its spiritual authority and solemnity, demonstrated the universality of the Roman Catholic Faith, in as much as the members had originally come from different regions of the earth and thus represented a large number of various nationalities. Representatives of the religious orders and congregations established in China also took part in the deliberations. Among them were Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits (Society of Jesus), Augustinians, members of La Societé des Missions Etrangéres de Paris, members of the Pontifical Institute of Milan, Vincentians, fathers of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, and representatives of the Society of the Divine Word.
Pontifical Letters on Nationalism. —On February 28, 1926, Pope Pius XI issued an encyclical letter, "Rerum Ecclesiae," similar to that of his predecessor, Pope Benedict XV and in the same year, June 15, dispatched to the bishops of China a second letter, "Ab Ipsis Pontificatus," in which he refuted the charge that missionaries of foreign nationalities were laboring in China in the interests of their respective countries, and urged all bishops and priests to collaborate towards the realization of the ideas set forth in his first letter. Two years later, in August 1, 1928, the sovereign pontiff sent a telegram to the Chinese people, in which he dealt a second time with the question of nationalism and which exercised a wide-spread influence for good on the mission field.
Consecration of the Chinese Bishops. —Acting on his plan to create a native governing body wherever possible, the pope elevated six Chinese priests to the episcopacy in 1926, and, in order to lend importance to the occasion, summoned them to Rome to receive consecration at his own hands. These six newly appointed bishops were:
Rev. Philip Chao, Rev. Louis Ch'en, Rev. Joseph Hu, Rev. Simon Chu, Rev. Melchoir Suen and Rev. Odoric Ch'eng. Accompanied by the Apostolic Delegate, the newly nominated bishops left Shanghai on September 10, 1926, and, amid all the splendor of Catholic ritual, were consecrated in the Church of St. Peter, Rome, on October 28 of the same year. This event was of far-reaching importance in the history of the Catholic penetration of China.
Rome witnessed a second consecration of Chinese bishops in 1933 when the Holy Father personally conferred episcopal power on three nominees: Rev. Joseph Fan, Rev. Joseph Ts'ui and Rev. Matthew Li.
VI. THE CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT IN CHINA UNDER PROTESTANT AUSPICES
The Protestant Christian Movement in China has among other characteristics five distinct features which compel attention: First, it is characterized by its complex, international, personnel, and financial support. The movement began in 1807 when the London Missionary Society sent its first missionary to China. In 1934 there were represented in China, carrying on active work under Protestant auspices 17 British societies, 64 American and Canadian societies, 23 European societies, two Australian societies and one International society with 30 others unclassified. These 137 societies had 6,150 missionaries in China in 1935 and had established 1,130 resident stations. This body of missionaries has come from no less than a dozen different nationalities representing a wide variation of historical, geographical, and cultural backgrounds.
Secondly, the Protestant Christian Movement in China is characterized by its wide denominational representation. In 1922, when the great survey of Protestant Missions was made, there were in the field 5 Anglican, 9 Baptist, 4 Congregational, 17 Lutheran, 8 Methodist, 10 Presbyterian, 2 Reformed, 5 Interdenominational, and 33 unclassified groups. This last item included such a variety of denominations as the Advent Christian, Apostolic Faith, Assembly of God, Church of God, Friends, Holiness Movement, Faith Mission, Mennonites, Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, Seventh Day Adventists, United Brethren, United Evangelical, Church of the Nazarene, Hephzibah Faith Mission, Bethel Mission, Ebenezer Mission and others. Practically all of these are still working in free China to-day.
Thirdly, the Protestant Christian Movement in China has been characterized by its comprehensiveness in Christian thought. These 6,000 or more missionaries brought over to China the denominational traditions which had shaped their own theological thinking. They were with very rare exceptions, loyal to the theological position which their own churches and boards represented. The leading forms of thought structure of all of the evangelical churches of the West were represented in China, including even some of the minor unimportant and nonessential variations. Besides the denominational thought variations there also were conservative and liberal, progressive and radical, fundamentalistic and modernistic attitudes that cut through all denominational lines. Human ism, Barthianism and Buchmanism (Oxford Group Movement) found a reception among the missionaries.
Fourthly, the Protestant Christian Movement in China was characterized by its activity in practical service. It was customary to describe the work of the Protestant Christian Movement in China in three phases-evangelistic, educational and medical. The evangelistic phase included much. In its broad sense it included practically everything, but in a narrower sense when used parallel with the other two—educational and medical—it referred only to the various normal functions which a church performs in the West. This was the chief work of the mission and of the employed Chinese workers as well. In personnel and time evangelistic work involved most of the missionaries and Chinese workers. The medical and educational work was however more appreciated and better understood by the Chinese in general. From the early days the Protestant Christian Movement in China was interested in social service. It initiated, or participated with non-Christians in such reforms as antifoot-binding, antigirl-slavery, antiopium, anticoncubinage, famine relief and so forth. The scope of social service later widened to include special missions to the lepers, the blind, the ricksha coolies, the workers in industrial towns and so forth.
Fifthly, an outstanding characteristic of the Protestant Christian Movement in China was its steady success in cooperative enterprises. With so many individual differences, denominational, national, and cultural in thought, practice, and outlook, they were in the main united in their common faith in Jesus Christ and in their efforts to serve Him. This common faith and loyal devotion was nowhere better illustrated than in various cooperative enterprises throughout the country in the fields of education, medical service and other forms of social work.
Church Unity. —Church unity progressed in China along three lines: (1) participation in national organizations of an advisory capacity such as the National Christian Council, the China Christian Education Association and the National Committee of Christian Religious Education; (2) cooperation and coordination in specific tasks, such as Union Universities, Union Middle Schools, Union Hospitals, Christian Literature Work and Theological Training; and (3) organic church union.
The five Anglican bodies representing the British, Canadian, and American Societies were united in the Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui (literally, the Holy Catholic Church of China). Ten Lutheran bodies representing mother organizations in Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and the United States were united in the Chung Hua Sin I Hui—literally, the Church of "Justification by Faith" of China. The two English Methodist bodies in China, as the result of the completion of the reunion of three Methodist churches in England in 1933, were united in China. In April, 1934, the Eastern Asia Central Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church was held in Nanking and received a report from its Commission of Program and Policy which recommended its affiliation with the Church of Christ in China and the discontinuance of the name Mei I Mei and the adoption of the words Wei Li Tsung, the full designation then becoming Chung Hua Chi Tu Chiao Hui Wei Li Tsung—literally, the Church of Christ in China, Methodist.
In January, 1935, at the invitation of the Standing Commission on Church Unity of the Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui a Conference of Church Unity was held in Shanghai. In January, 1937, a second conference was called.
Rural Service. —The Christian movement has always given attention to the rural population. The following two organizations were of special importance: (1) the Kiangsi Christian Rural Service Union and (2) the North China Rural Service Union.
In January, 1937, the Nanking Theological Seminary invited theological seminaries and Christian colleges interested in rural work in all parts of China to send representatives to a conference on rural extension. Fourteen institutions and organizations responded. The conference recommended that there be six regions for extension work with certain theological schools and colleges assuming responsibility in each region in cooperation with the churches.
A Continuation Committee was elected representing the six regions and the National Christian Council, with the following members:
Mr. James Hunter, Rev. Homer Brown, Mr. Paul T. T. Seng, Rev. Frank W. Price, Dr. Francis Chen, Rev. Y.S. Tom, Dr. W. Y. Chen.
Religious Education Fellowship and the Chinese Student Christian Movement. —There are two movements which were of special importance in the development of the Protestant Christian Movement in China. One of these, the Religious Education Fellowship, was among the more mature workers, and the other, the Chinese Student Christian Movement, was among the younger people, chiefly the college and university students.
The Salvation Army. —Salvation Army work in China began in 1916. The pioneer officers arrived in that year in Peiping, where they studied the language and commenced public meetings. At the very beginning of these public meetings in Peiping they won converts who formed the nucleus of the 13 corps. The work soon spread to such places as Tientsin, Tsinan, Taiyuan, Paoting, Kalgan and so forth. In 1918, a training institute was opened for the training of young men and women salvationists. A new training institute was opened in 1932 as a memorial to William Booth. On October 10, 1932, the first Salvation Army Hospital in China was opened in Tientsin with 60 beds. The Army used varied methods to further its work, these including open air services, mass education classes, homes for orphans and poor children, homes for women and girls, prison work, medical work and what is best known and appreciated by the general public—winter relief work, given in the form of porridge kitchens and warm shelters during the cold winter months. The work of relief in famine-stricken districts and flooded areas and war-devastated regions, though limited on account of finance, was also widely known.